PRAXIS REVIEW

Accommodation is the ability to deal with a new event by either modifying an existing scheme (e.g., group of acquired information) or the forming of new one’s). (See Piaget)

Accretion Learning - is the subconscious or subliminal, process by which individuals learn important things like language, prejudices, habits, social rules and behaviors. Accretion is a process where individuals are totally unaware that learning is taking place and accounts for about 70% of what individuals know and understand.

Acquisition Learning - tends to be more relevant to students and it appears to be the conscious choice of how students want to learn. This approach involves self-instruction, experimenting, inquiry, exploring, and general curiosity. Acquisition accounts for about 20% of what students learn.

Affixes - linguistics a form added to the beginning, middle, or end of another word that creates a derivative word or inflection and applied as an attachment to the end or beginning of base or root words. A generic term that describes prefixes and suffixes word parts "fixed to" either the beginnings of words (prefixes) or the ending of words (suffixes). For example, the word disrespectful has two affixes, a prefix (dis-) and a suffix (-ful).

Alphabetic Principle - the notion that letters making a word have corresponding sounds, thus letters and sounds can be placed together to build words.

Antonyms - words with opposite meanings, (e.g., big - little; short – tall; black – white).

Assimilation the ability to deal with a new event in a way that is consistent with an existing scheme. When discussing assimilation the term accommodation, it should be acknowledged that you cannot have one without the other. Accommodation is the process of learning – or adding newly learned knowledge to the present storage of knowledge and information. When the child interacts with the environment, it is common for both assimilation and accommodation to occur. First, the child will try to change the environment by fitting the new information into their mind/brain storage with old knowledge. (See Piaget)

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Ausubel, David – was influenced by Piaget and indicated that learning is based primarily on the types of subordinate processes that occur during the early learning stage. Here, new material is related to relevant ideas in the existing cognitive structure. Ausubel’s theory is concerned with how individuals learn vast amounts of meaningful material from lecture assignments in a school setting. Verbal learning was seen as the predominant method of classroom learning. Ausubel believes that discovery learning techniques are often ineffective. He felt that much of school learning is verbal learning (receptive learning) and indicated that individuals tend to forget things because certain details become integrated and lose their importance. Ausubel's stressed advance organizer which focuses on teaching via a deductive method. Deductive methods or deductive reasoning provide that the rule should be delineated with a good example to follow which leads to the correct answer or learning. This is contrary to the inductive methods or reasoning introduces an example, followed by the rule. Ausubel believes that deductive reasoning will allow students to learn the rule, and after structured examples are introduced to support the rules, students will be able to use the rule then the example for optimal learning to occur.

Authentic Assessment - a technique used to examine students’ collective abilities via real-world challenges that require them to apply their relevant skills and knowledge.

Bandura, Albert - found that although environment causes behavior, behavior also causes environment as well. Bandura labeled this concept, reciprocal determinism, implies that the individual’s behavior has a “cause" and “affect” relationship. Bandura is considered a “father” of the cognitive movement, or, observational learning, commonly referred to as the famous, Bobo Doll study. Bandura called this phenomenon, observational learning or modeling, better known as the social learning theory. Bandura’s theory emphasizes the importance of observing and modeling behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. Another important concept in social learning theory is self-regulation. Bandura hypothesized that individuals observe and reflect on their own behavior, judge it against their own criteria, and determine the worth as to whether or not to keep the behavior. To make these judgments, individuals must have standards by which they judge their own performance. Social learning theory concentrates on the relationship, reciprocal, and continuous interaction among cognitive, behavioral, and environmental influences on the learner. Components underlying observational learning include:

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Attention - Learning requires attention and anything that hampers attention will decrease learning (such as being sleepy, anxious in testing situations, or feeling bad. Distractions in the environment will also lessen attention to a varying degree, depending on one’s ability to “tune out” distractions.

Retention - Learning requires memory and once something is experienced with the proper amount of attention, it is stored. With the help of either visual, auditory imagery, or language, the model of what was experienced is committed to memory in the form of images or verbal messages. When so stored, it can be retrieved and reproduced based on the quality of the memory.

Reproduction - Learning requires the ability to recall a behavior and the skills to perform the behavior. An individual may watch golf tournaments on TV and learn a lot by seeing how master golfers swing. In this case, remembering how the motions are made would only help to recreate the behavior if the individual knows how to golf in the first place. If the individual can play golf, watching experts may improve his/her skills.

Motivation - Learning requires having a reason for modeling and using a learned behavior. Because it encompasses attention, memory, and motivation, social learning theory spans both cognitive and behavioral frameworks.

Behaviorism - a theory of animal and human learning that focuses on observable behaviors and ignores psychological activities.

Bloom's Taxonomy formulated a classification of "the goals of the educational process." Bloom and a group of educational psychologists developed a taxonomy based on the classification levels of intellectual behavior important to the learning process. The taxonomy included three overlapping domains including, (1) cognitive, (2) psychomotor, and (3) affective.

The cognitive learning domain consisted of six levels: (1) knowledge, (2) comprehension, (3) application, (4) analysis, (5) synthesis, and (6) evaluation. For each level, specific learning behaviors were defined as well as appropriate descriptive verbs that could be used for writing instructional objectives. For example: (1) Knowledge: arrange, define, duplicate, label, list, memorize, name, order, recognize, reproduce, and state. (2.) Comprehension: classify, describe, discuss, explain, express, identify, indicate, locate, recognize, report, restate, review, select, and translate. (3) Application: apply, choose, demonstrate, dramatize, employ, illustrate, interpret, operate, practice, schedule, sketch, solve, use, and write. (4.) Analysis: analyze, appraise, calculate, categorize, compare, contrast, criticize, differentiate, discriminate, distinguish, examine, experiment, question, and test. (5) Synthesis: arrange, assemble, collect, compose, construct, create, design, develop, formulate, manage, organize, plan, prepare, propose, set up, and write. And, (6) Evaluation: appraise, argue, assess, attach, choose compare, defend estimate, judge, predict, rate, core, select, support, value, and evaluate.

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Bruner, Jerome emphasized how the human thought processes were subdivided into three distinct modes of reasoning. In contrast, Piaget classified each style to a specific period/stage of development. Although Bruner perceived each mode as distinct and dominant during each developmental stage, be believed that they are present and accessible throughout the developmental process. Bruner’s model of human development is viewed as a combination of enactive skills (e.g., manipulating objects, spatial awareness), iconic skills (e.g., visual recognition, the ability to compare and contrast) and, symbolic skills (e.g., abstract reasoning).

“Bruner suggested that people remember things with ‘a view towards meaning and signification, not toward the end of somehow ‘preserving’ the facts themselves.” This view of knowledge – and memory – as a constructed entity is consistent with constructivism, with which Bruner is also closely associated.” A constant theme in Bruner’s work is that education is a process of discovery. As a structural theorist, Bruner believes that information or knowledge is more effective when gained by personal discovery, and then classified symbolically. He further suggested that students should be encouraged to pursue concepts individually by themselves in order to gain a better perspective and fuller understanding. Within the education system, a teacher would then engage students in active dialogue and guide them when necessary so that students would progressively build their own knowledge base, rather than be ‘taught’. This is in concert with the philosophy of Vygotsky’s application of scaffolding. New information would be classified and understood based on knowledge already learned.

http://au.geocities.com/vanunoo/Humannature/bruner.html

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Choral Reading - two or more individuals reading aloud from the same text in unison to enhance oral reading fluency.

Classical Conditioning suggests that behavior is somewhat controlled by association and illustrated after a neutral stimulus accepts the eliciting properties of an unconditioned stimulus through the pairing of some unconditioned stimulus with the neutral stimulus.

Cognitive Coaching – teaching students to use their own thinking processes to solve problems.

Connectionism – a theory developed by Edward Thorndike. The learning theory that represents the original S-R framework of behavioral psychology suggesting that learning is the result of associations forming between stimuli and responses. These associations or "habits" become strengthened or weakened by the nature and frequency of the S-R pairings.

Cooperative Learning - is an instructional approach that encourages students to work collaboratively as partners or in small groups on clearly defined tasks.

Community of Learners – is a classroom environment that promotes learning via a variety of teaching and learning strategies including, cooperative learning, collaboration, technology, etc.

Constructivism - constructivist theory is a general framework for instruction based upon the study of cognition. Constructivism is based on the belief that children construct meaning from their experiences, and are not just passive receivers of information. Much of the theory is linked to child development research (especially Piaget's). The theory suggest that students reflect on their experiences, and construct an understanding of the world they live governed by their own "rules" to make sense of their experiences.

Conventional Spelling – standard spelling is the correct form for written documents.

Critical thinking is a form of logic which infers that the individual is using cognitive properties to seek, organize, or define meaning. Critical and creative thinking are the two most basic thinking skills. Critical thinking is a matter of thinking clearly and rationally. In contrast, creativity involves the discovery of new and relevant ideas. To be a good and effective thinker, both kinds of thinking skills are needed.

Creativity might be divided into two kinds. One is cognitive creativity that is involved in solving problems. The other is aesthetic creativity relating to artistic creation. This is of course not a sharp distinction, but critical thinking plays a more important role in the former. http://philosophy.hku.hk/think/creative/

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Deductive Reasoning - initiated from the general to the specific, and often referred to as the "top-down" approach. Deductive reasoning tends to be less broad and primarily concerned with testing hypotheses. In contrast, Inductive Reasoning is more open-ended and exploratory, especially during the beginning of the investigation.

Derivational Relations Spelling is common among students ages 11-14. Here, students explore the relationship between spelling and meaning during the derivational relations stage, and learn that words with related meanings are often related in spelling despite changes in vowel and consonant sounds (e.g., wise-wisdom, sign-signal, nation-national). Examples of spelling errors include: CRITISIZE (criticize), APPEARENCE (appearance), and COMMITTE or COMMITEE (committee). The focus in this stage is on morphemes, and students learn about Greek and Latin root words and affixes. They also begin to examine etymologies and the role of history in shaping how words are spelled. They learn about eponyms (words from people’s names), such as maverick and sandwich. The following concepts are learned at this stage of spelling development:

Consonant alternations (e.g., soft-soften, magic-magician)
Vowel alternations (e.g., please-pleasant, define-definition, explain-explanation)
Greek and Latin affixes and root words (Tompkins, 2002)

Dewey, John (1859-1952) was very concerned with how the total classroom environment affected learning. He believed that the curriculum must be designed to engage and enlarge experiences for students in an informal education practice. Dewey advocated for teacher-student interaction and a nurturing classroom environment to enhance opportunities for learning. www.infed.org/thinkers/et-dewey.htm

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Digraphs - two letters that represent one speech sound, as EA in BREAD, CH in CHAT, or NG in SING.

Diphthongs - two-vowel combinations where both vowels are heard, but not quite making their usual sounds because of the blending,(e.g., oy in TOY).

Dolch Basic Sight Vocabulary List consists of 220 common words identified by Edward W. Dolch in 1936. Although nouns are not included, the list includes prepositions, conjunctions, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, and common verbs. Sight words include structure words which hold language together, as opposed to content words. These are the most frequently found words in children’s books. Sight words are usually learned in first, second, and third grade. Pupils who learn these words will usually have a good base for beginning reading. Many of the words cannot be pronounced or learned phonetically because they do not follow decoding rules, so they must be learned via rote as sight words. At one time, teachers estimated primary pupil’s reading level by having them identify the 220 Dolch Basic Sight Words. The number of words recognized was the basis for assigning a equivalent reading level. Pupils who have mastered the 220 word list effortlessly are likely to read at a third grade level.

Preprimer	Primer	First	Second	Third
a	all	after	always	about
and	am	again	around	better
away	are	an	because	bring
big	at	any	been	carry
blue	ate	as	before	clean
can	be	ask	best	cut
come	black	by	both	done
down	brown	could	buy	draw
find	but	every	call	drink
for	came	fly	cold	eight
funny	did	from	does	fall
go	do	give	don't	far
help	eat	going	fast	full
hers	four	had	first	got
I	get	has	five	grow
in	good	her	found	hold
is	has	him	gave	hot
it	he	how	goes	hurt
jump	into	just	green	if
little	like	know	its	keep
look	must	let	made	kind
make	new	live	many	laugh
me	no	may	off	light
my	now	of	or	long
not	on	old	pull	much
one	our	once	read	myself
play	out	open	right	never
red	please	over	sing	only
run	pretty	put	sit	own
said	ran	round	sleep	pick
see	ride	some	tell	seven
the	saw	stop	their	shall
three	say	take	these	show
to	she	thank	those	six
two	so	them	upon	small
up	soon	then	us	start
we	that	think	use	ten
yellow	there	walk	very	today
you	they	where	wash	together
	this	when	which	try
	too		why	warm
	under		wish
	want		work
	was		would
	well		write
	went		your
	what
	white
	who
	will
	with
	yes

Gemini Elementary School (www.geminischool.org

Echo Reading – a strategy where the teacher reads a line or passage with good expression, and calls on students to read it back. This is a good technique to use with Emergent Readers to help them build reading fluency.

Emergence Learning is manifested via structuring, patterning, and constructing meaning, understanding, and ideas that did not exist initially. This process involves insight, reflection, creative expression, and/or group interactions. This method of learning is dependent on intelligence, synthesis, intuition, creativity, and problem-solving skills. Emergence only accounts for 1-2% of what individuals learn in a lifetime.

Emergent Reader - the reader at the beginning stages of learning to read and developing an association of print with meaning. During this stage of reading development, children engage in reading play and retelling familiar stories from memory and using pictures to make predictions.

Emergent Spelling is typical of preschoolers; age’s three to five and involves the stringing and scribbling of letters to form words. Emergent spelling represents a natural, early expression of the alphabet and other concepts about writing. Children may write from left to right, right to left, top to bottom, or randomly across the page. Although students tend to use both upper- and lowercase letters, they tend to prefer using uppercase letters. This is the period when students learn: (1) The distinction between drawing and writing; (2) How to form letters; (3) The direction of writing on a page, and (4) Some letter-sound matches (Tompkins, 2002)

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Erikson, Erik developed the theory of psychosocial development relative to the eight stages of progression toward self-esteem. Erikson's development of identity continues for life and it is never completed.

Stage

Age Span

Characteristics

Virtue

1. Trust vs. Mistrust

Birth to 1 Year

Need for care and food, responsiveness of the environment. Without a safe, secure environment, infants will learn to mistrust.

Hope

2. Autonomy vs. Shame

1 to 3 Years

The “well – parented” child emerges from this stage sure of himself, elated with his newfound control, and proud rather than ashamed. Two-year-olds are known for their preference for the answer “NO,” regardless. They are learning that they can make decisions for themselves. Caregivers must begin to give options and choices to children, allow them freedom of feeding themselves, and help them learn self-control of toileting skills. Tolerance is important during this period.

Will

3. Initiative vs. Guilt

3 to 6 Years

This is a time of learning how to assert themselves in socially acceptable ways. Known as the play stage, the developing child learns (1) to imagine, to broaden his skills through active play of all sorts, including pretend; (2) to cooperate with others;

(3) to lead as well as to follow. If he is not successful with the crisis for this stage, he may be immobilized by guilt and he will (1) exhibit fearfulness, (2) not participate in groups,

(3) continue to depend unduly on adults, and (4) be restricted both in the development of play skills and in imagination. Caregivers should allow more freedom but also help them understand limits and rules.

Purpose

4. Industry vs. Inferiority

6 to 12 years

This stage is know as the school age stage and extends from about first grade through middle school. Here the child acquires competence and industriousness. He/she learns to master the more formal skills of life such as relating with peers according to rules; progressing from pretend to play that is structured by rules and may demand formal teamwork, such as soccer; and academic studies. Homework is a necessity and the need for self-discipline and self-monitoring increases yearly. The child who, because of his/her successive and successful resolutions of earlier psychosocial crisis, is trusting, autonomous, and full of initiative will learn easily enough to be industrious. However, the mistrusting child will doubt the future. The shame- and guilt-filled child will experience defeat and inferiority. The child should be given responsibilities both at school and at home for which he/she is capable of performing successfully to help build self-confidence and independence.

Competence

5. Identity vs. Role Confusion

Adolescence

Young people at this age are working on determining who they are and who they want to be. They experiment with different personas. They tend to admire risk takers because they have not developed the confidence to step out in front of the crowd. At times, their trials may lead to minor delinquency, trying out drugs or alcohol, or engaging in sexual activity. Erikson believed that during successful early adolescence, the young person acquires self-certainty, as opposed to self-consciousness and self-doubt. He comes to experiment with different, usually constructive, roles rather than becoming a delinquent. He anticipates achievement rather than being paralyzed by feelings of inferiority. In later adolescence, clear sexual identity, manhood or womanhood, is established. The adolescent seeks leadership and leaders, and gradually develops a set of ideals (socially congruent and desirable, in the case of the successful adolescent). Caregivers should provide models and support during this very critical time of development. And tolerance and patience is the by-word.

Fidelity

6. Intimacy vs. Isolation

Early Adulthood

At this stage, young adults are learning unselfish love, whether with a significant other, a coworker, a child, a student, or others in their environment. They understand the give and take of a loving relationship. Those who do not succeed at intimacy tend to feel isolated and lonely.

Love

7. Generativity vs. Stagnation

Middle Adulthood

At this stage of development, individuals should be feeling fulfilled in their choices whether it be a productive worker in their career; a supportive and interested parent; or a sharing, loving spouse. Their achievement means fulfillment for them, but it goes beyond so that it will lay the groundwork for the next generation. Those who fail at this stage feel a like of meaningfulness, a lack of membership, a lack of contribution.

Care

8. Integrity vs. Despair

Late Adulthood /Old Age

If the other seven psychosocial crises have been successfully achieved, the mature adult develops contentment, the peak of adjustment, and integrity. He is independent, trusting of himself and others, and looks forward to new challenges. He has found a well-defined role in life and has developed a self-concept with which he is happy. He can be intimate without shame, guilt, regret, or lack of realism, and he is proud of his creations - his children, his work, and his contributions. If one or more of the earlier psychosocial crises have not been resolved, he may view himself and his life with loneliness and despair, and he is sorrowful over the opportunities that were missed.

Wisdom

From: Dr. Jeanne Ellis Ormrod’s textbook, Educational Psychology: Developing Learners (5th Edition)

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Etymology - the history or study of words.

Experiential Learning is credited to Carl Rogers who suggested that all human beings have a natural propensity to learn. The role of the teacher is to facilitate learning via: setting a positive classroom climate for learning; clarifying the purposes and rules; organizing and providing learning resources; balancing both intellectual and emotional components of learning; and ensuring that students engage in self-evaluation to assess their progress and success. (See Carl Rogers)

Equilibration was coined by Piaget to identify a process that regulates tension between assimilation (information) and accommodation (learning). Equilibration implies that individuals learn through experiences somewhat different from previous experiences. Thus, their mental structure is modified in small steps. Individuals learn best when the new incoming information is slightly different from existing information. This process will allow the new information to be assimilated with a small degree of accommodation.

Formative Evaluation is ongoing evaluation during an instructional sequence to allow midstream adaptation and improvement of the project.

Frequently Confused Words:

accept & except

Accept means "to receive." (e.g., Please accept my gift.)

Except means "not including." (e.g., I brought all the gifts except yours.)

advice & advise

Advice is an "opinion about what should be done." (e.g., The counselor gives good advice.)

Advise means "to recommend." (e.g., Please advise me on what to do.)

affect & effect

Affect means "to influence." (e.g., Do not let the loss affect you.)

An effect is "a result." (e.g., The loss did not have an effect on me.)

all ready & already

All ready means "everything is ready." (e.g., We are all ready to move.)

Already means "previously." (e.g., We already moved our things yesterday.)

buy & by

Buy means "to purchase." Please buy me a ticket.

By means "beside". Example: The book is by the table.

choose & chose

Choose means "to select." (e.g., Today, I will choose you to be on my team.)

Chose is the past tense of choose. (e.g., Yesterday, I chose you to be on my team.)

complement & compliment

Complement means "to make complete." (e.g., This hat will complement my new dress.)

A compliment is something said in praise. (e.g., Thanks for the compliment about my dress.)

emigrate & immigrate

Emigrate means "to leave one country to settle in another." (e.g., I plan to emigrate from China.)

Immigrate means "to come to live in a new country." (e.g., I plan to immigrate to the Mexico.)

it's & its

It's is the short form of "it is." (e.g., It's in the house.)

Its is a pronoun that shows ownership or possession. (e.g., The dog has its own house.)

loose & lose

Loose means "not tight." (e.g., My pants are not tight, they are too loose.)

Lose means "to be defeated or no longer have." (e.g., I do not want to lose the game.)

miner & minor

A miner is a person who works in a gold or coal mine. (e.g., My uncle is a coal miner.)

Minor is an adjective that means "unimportant." (e.g., This is not serious, its a minor problem.)
A minor also refers to a person who is not yet an adult. (e.g., It is illegal for a minor to drink alcohol.)

past & passed

Past means "gone by" or "history." (e.g., Fred drove past by my house this morning.)

Looking back in time, my past was very interesting.

Passed is the past tense of pass. (e.g., We passed the truck earlier.)

principal & principle

A principal is the head of a school. (e.g., Mr. Greene is the principal of Miller High School.)

A principle is an important fact or law. (e.g., The principle of democracy is important to Canadians.)

Stationary & stationery

Stationary means to be "standing still." (e.g., Please remain stationary.)

Stationery means "writing materials." (e.g., They went to the store to buy some stationery for the office.

than & then

Than means "in comparison with." (e.g., He is bigger than me.

Then means "next." (e.g., After going home, he then started his assignment.

their & there & they're

Their is a form of "they" that shows ownership. (e.g., John and Mary put their flowers are on the table.)

There describes where something is. (e.g., The flowers are there on the table.)

They're is a short form of "they are." (e.g. Bettie and Marilyn said that, they're going to buy flowers later.)

threw & through

Threw is the past tense of throw. (e.g., He threw the ball over the fence.)

Through means advancing from "end to end." (e.g., We drove through the tunnel.)

to & too & two

To means "in the direction of." (e.g., Charles went to the store.)

Too means "also." (e.g., Lloyd said that he is going to the store, too.)

Two is a number. (e.g., Two of my friends also went to the store.

weather & whether

Weather means "climate conditions outdoors." (e.g., The weather is terrible, it’s just too hot.)

Whether is an expression of choice between two options. (e.g., I do not know whether I will stay home or go to school.

your & you're

Your is a form of "you" that shows ownership. (e.g., Carol your house is beautiful.)

You're is a short form of "your are." (e.g., George, you're going to be late for school.)

www2.actden.com/writ_den/tips/sentence/confused.htm

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Grammar and Writing Guide: http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/#

Allegory -- using a specific character or situation in your writing to express a more general truth

Alliteration -- a series of words in a sentence all beginning with the same sound. (Remember the old tongue-twister "Peter picked a peck of pickled peppers"?)

Analogy -- a comparison showing like parts of two unlike things. Remember those old tests? (foot is to person as paw is to cat, for instance)

Anaphora -- several consecutive sentences starting with the same group of words. (President Bush's speech is a good example: "We will not tire. We will not falter. We will not fail."

Antonyms -- opposites (day and night, for instance)

Cliché -- similar to a dead metaphor; an expression that has been widely overused. (Like saying something cost "an arm and a leg". Ugh!)

Double Entendre -- a phrase that can be interpreted in two different ways. Usually one of the meanings is slightly "off color". (While so common, this is a difficult one to find a good example of--let me know if you have any!)

Euphemism -- a phrase used in place of something disagreeable or upsetting ("passed on" instead of died)

Homographs -- words that are spelled alike but pronounced differently and/or mean different things (Sahara desert and to desert someone, for instance)

Homonyms -- words that are spelled and pronounced alike but have different meanings (baby; an infant, and baby; to coddle, for instance)

Hyperbole -- deliberate exaggeration (e.g., scared to death)

Metaphor -- this is similar to a simile, but more direct. One word is used directly in place of another to suggest a relationship between them. Usually a metaphor says one thing is something else. (Rachel is a peach, for instance)

Dead Metaphor -- a metaphor that has lost its "force" through overuse. Most often not even recognized as a metaphor any more (being "over your head", for instance)

Mixed Metaphor -- an inconsistent metaphor ("That's water over the bridge", for instance; a cross of "water under the bridge" and "water over the dam")

Onomatopoeia -- a word that sounds like what it is (hiss, for instance)

Oxymoron -- a phrase composed of two words with contradictory meanings-- "virtual reality," for instance

Personification -- giving living attributes to an inanimate object (i.e., leaves dancing in the wind)

Simile -- the similarities of two separate things are shown through a comparison using the words like or as. (lips as red as cherry wine, for instance)

Synonyms -- words with the same meaning (happy and glad, for instance)

Voice -- in writing, how you "sound" on the page. Your voice is your style, your tone, your unique way of telling a story.

Widows & Orphans -- In publishing lingo, a "widow" is the last line of a paragraph, printed alone at the top of a page. An "orphan" is the first line of a paragraph, printed alone at the bottom of a page. Many word processors offer features to control these in your documents.

Nouns - A noun is a person, place, thing, or idea. Every sentence must have a noun as its subject. (i.e., The bear sleeps. & Toronto is a city

Proper Nouns - A proper noun is the name of a person, place or thing. Proper nouns should always be capitalized. (i.e., Toronto & Mr. Brown & Sally

Common Nouns - A common noun is any noun that is not a proper noun. Common nouns are not capitalized. (i.e., the city & a leader & this woman)

Plural Forms - The plural form of a noun indicates more than one. The plural form is usually formed by adding an s or es. (i.e., one week, two weeks - and, a house, many houses or one box, two boxes)

Nouns that end in a consonant followed by a y are made plural by dropping the y and adding ies. (e.g., one country, two countries)

Nouns that end in a vowel followed by a y are made plural by adding s. (e.g., one toy, two toys)

Nouns that end in f or fe drop the f or fe and add ves. (e.g., one leaf, two leaves)

Certain irregular nouns have special plural forms. (e.g., one foot; two feet & a mouse, many mice)

Possessive Forms - The possessive form of a noun indicates ownership or modifies another noun. The possessive form is usually formed by adding 's to the end of a noun. (e.g.,1.) the player's equipment; 2.) the woman's job; 3.) Canada's government)

Verbs - Verbs are words that are used to express an action. Every sentence must have a verb that shows what the subject is doing or explains what is going on. (e.g., 1. The bear sleeps; 2). Toronto is a city.)

Subject and Verb Agreement - Each verb must agree with the subject in number. Check your sentences carefully to make sure your verbs agree with your nouns. (e.g., 1.) I study; 2.) He/She/It studies; 3.) You study & They study)

Incorrect: We studies at the university

Correct: We study at the university.

Adverbs are words used to describe actions. They give additional information about when, how, and where something is happening. Use adverbs to make your writing more precise and interesting.

She spoke yesterday. (when)
She spoke quickly. (how)
She spoke here. (where)

Some adverbs are used to compare different actions.

I can run fast. She can run faster. He can run the fastest.
I spoke well. She spoke better. He spoke the best.

Adjectives are words used to describe or modify nouns. They give the reader more information about a noun. Use adjectives to make your writing more interesting. (e.g., a good essay; the intelligent student; our hard-working leader)

Some adjectives can be used for comparing different things. (i.e., Vancouver is cold. 2.) Toronto is colder. 3.) Winnipeg is coldest.) (e.g., This book is good. That book is better. My book is the best.)

Prepositions are used before nouns to give additional information in a sentence. Usually, prepositions are used to show where something is located or when something happened. http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/

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Gardner, Howard - Theory of Multiple Intelligences

Howard Gardner (1993) is a modern theorist who suggested that although there may be a general factor of intelligence, it fails to explain individual performance in difference areas. Gardner identified eight areas of distinct ability:

1. Linguistic Intelligence: Ability to manipulate language in understanding the rules of grammar. Ability to deal with poetry and prose, be a good negotiator, and have persuasive skills.

2. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence: Skills with algorithms, mathematical process, and being able to formulate and solve hypotheses.

3. Spatial Intelligence: Having good revisualization skills, being able to take all information, and with an internal visual image solve problems.

4. Musical Intelligence: Ability to hear musical relationships internally, learn to read music and play musical instruments, and compose music.

5. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence: Being able to understand one’s position in space; have good balance and antigravity skills; and perform tasks, such as sports or dance that requires good coordination.

6. Interpersonal Intelligence: Understanding the motives of others, being able to determine others’ moods and desires, and using information about others to be able to influence and persuade.

7. Intrapersonal Intelligence: Being aware of one’s self, one’s feelings, interests, abilities, and effectiveness.

8. Naturalist Intelligence: Having an understanding of nature and its patterns, such as how seasons change, how nature reacts to severe trauma (forest fires). Applying knowledge to farming or hunting.

When the theory was included in Frames of Mind (2000), Gardner suggested that each individual possesses at least seven types of relatively independent mental abilities. The following chart illustrates the intelligences Gardner asserted that all individuals have. Each individual is able to use these abilities at different levels and in different combinations to create unique styles of learning.

Intelligence Types	Core Operations (strengths)
1. Linguistic	syntax, phonology, semantics, pragmatics
2. Musical	pitch, rhythm, timbre
3. Logical-Mathematical	number, categorization, relations
4. Spatial	accurate mental visualization, mental transformation of images
5. Bodily-Kinesthetic	control of one’s own body, control in handling objects
6. Interpersonal	awareness of others’ feelings, emotions, goals, motivations
7. Intrapersonal	awareness of one’s own feelings, emotions, goals, motivations
8. Naturalist	recognition and classification of objects in the environment

From: Dr. Jeanne Ellis Ormrod’s textbook, Educational Psychology: Developing Learners (5th Edition)

Gardner believed that learning/teaching should focus on the particular intelligences of each person. For example, some individuals may have strong spatial or musical intelligences; therefore, they should be encouraged to develop these abilities. He also pointed out that the different intelligences represent not only different content domains but also learning styles. At present, intelligence tests center on verbal and logical ability based on language skills. Gardner’s belief was that assessment of abilities should measure all forms of intelligence, not just linguistic and logical-mathematical ones. Gardner had three main principles of learning:

Individuals should be encouraged to use their preferred intelligences in learning.
Instructional activities should be planned to attract different forms of intelligence.
Assessment of learning should measure all multiple forms of intelligence. (p. 86)

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Gestalt theory was founded by Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler, and Kurt Koffka. The fundamental premise of Gestalt psychology relates to a sense of wholeness. Gestalt theory emphasized a higher-order cognitive process relative to behavior, and endorses the notion of grouping characteristics of stimuli to allow for the interpretation of a problem. The fundamental properties relative to grouping were called the laws of organization and explained in the context of perception and problem solving. The laws of organization included: (1) proximity - elements tend to be grouped together according to their location, (2) similarity – implying that items which are analogous to some degree tend to be grouped together, and (3) closure – suggesting that items are grouped together if they complete some entity, and simplicity - items will be organized into simple figures according to symmetry, regularity, and smoothness.

Glaser, William is credited with the concept control theory – a motivation theory developed by that contends that behavior is never caused by a response to an outside stimulus. Instead, the control theory states that behavior is inspired by what a person wants most at any given time: survival, love, power, freedom, or any other basic need.

Guided Reading is a strategy where experienced readers provide structure via modeling strategies in order to move beginning readers towards independence.

Guided Writing – classroom teacher supports student development with the writing process. Students are required to write sentences or passages while the teacher guides the process and instruction through conferences and minilessons.

Guthrie, E. is credited as the exponent originator. According to Guthrie, all learning was a consequence of association between a particular stimulus and response. Simple contiguous (close together in time or space) association of a stimulus and response can lead to a change in behavior. Thus, the role of motivation is to create a state of arousal and activity that will produce a given response that can now be conditioned. In addition, contiguity theory indicates that forgetting is due in part, to interference rather than the passage of time, as stimuli tends to become associated with new responses and old responses gradually, become unlearned.

Homographs - words that are spelled alike but have different sounds and meanings (bow and arrow vs. bow of a ship).

Idioms - the use of words peculiar to a particular language with a meaning that differs from typical syntactic patterns or from the literal meaning of its parts taken together. Some examples of idiomatic expressions would include, "John kicked the bucket" means "John passed away," or "chill out" means "relax, don't sweat it."

Information Processing is a theory advanced by George A. Miller who stressed the idea that short-term memory could only hold 5-9 chunks of information (seven plus or minus two). The term chunk represents any meaningful unit (i.e., digits, words, pictures, etc.). The concept of chunking and the limited capacity of short-term memory became a basic element of all subsequent memory theories.

Initial Blends - the joining of two or more consonant sounds, represented by letters that begins a word without losing the identity of the sounds, such as /bl/ in black, the joining of the first consonant and vowel sounds in a word, such as /b/ and /a/ in baby. This skill is important in learning phonics.

Interactive Writing – here, teachers and students compose passages and stories that are written collaboratively. Students are free to print some words or interact with the print as facilitated by teacher (shared pen).

Invented Spelling – a technique used by beginning writers to spell words using whatever knowledge of sounds or visual patterns when formal spelling strategy is not yet learned.

Kohlberg, Lawrence developed the Six Stages of Moral Thought:

Stage 1 children think of what is right as that which authority says is right. Doing the right thing is obeying authority and avoiding punishment.
Stage 2 children are no longer so impressed by any single authority. Now they see that there are different sides to any issue. Since everything is relative, one is free to pursue one's own interests, although it is often useful to make deals and exchange favors with others.
Stage 3 young people think as members of the conventional society with its values, norms, and expectations. Here, they emphasize being a good person, which basically means having helpful motives toward people they care for.
Stage 4 their concern shifts toward obeying laws to maintain society as a whole.
Stage 5 people are less concerned with maintaining society for it own sake, and more concerned with the principles and values that make for a good society. They also tend to emphasize basic rights and the democratic processes that give everyone an opportunity to voice their opinions.
Stage 6 they define the principles by which agreement will be most just.

http://faculty.plts.edu/gpence/html/kohlberg.htm

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Learning Centers are multi-level stations where activities designed for specific instructional purposes to provide reinforcement, independent practice, and Discovery. In an early childhood program, this is an area that contains materials, such as blocks, pretend household items or art supplies, where children can explore their own interests at their own pace.

Letter Name Spelling is common to students five to seven years of age. Here, students learn to represent phonemes in words with letters. This shows that they have a rudimentary understanding of the alphabetic principle - suggesting that a link exists between letters and sounds.

Language Experience Approach (LEA) - a method of teaching reading by using the reader's own dictated language. This approach allows the reader to read words common to their environment.

Literature Circles are important to the cooperative reading process. Tompkins (2002) endorsed four components of literature circles including: reading, responding, creating projects, and sharing.

Mastery Learning - proposes that all children can learn when provided with the appropriate learning conditions in the classroom.

Metacognition involves several important elements including, designing, monitoring, and assessing a specific plan of action. Steps students should take to enhance metacognition: (1) identify how much they know about a specific topic to consider for developing a project, (2) have an idea of exactly how much time they want to devote to the project, (3) have an idea of when the project is expected to be completed, (4) monitor their progress by reviewing their work relative to the project, and (5) assess their performance and/or satisfaction with the project or assignment. During this phase of the project, students should ask themselves, “am I satisfied?" or, "can I do a better job?" - "if so, how?” In short, metacognition is simply the process of "thinking about thinking." In fact, good readers use metacognition before they read anything in order to help them clarify their purpose for reading and to preview the text.

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Minilessons are associated to direct instruction and skill-and-drill activities. Here, teachers use direct instruction during the mini-lesson to teach about reading and writing procedures, skills, and strategies. The second kind of teaching is indirect teaching. Here, teachers use indirect teaching for brief, on-the-spot mini-lesson as they respond to students’ questions or assist students who need specific help. Mini-lesson takes place during whole-class activities, conferences with students, or working with small groups. Teachers may also do indirect teaching as they model reading when reading aloud to the class, and as they model writing during collaborative writing exercises. (Tompkins, 2002)

Mnemonic Device – is used as an aid in helping students to remember material.

Morphemes are word forms and another component of syntax. Morphemes are also the smallest meaningful units in language and word parts that could also change the meaning of a word.

Multiple Intelligences - (See Gardner, Howard)

Maslow, Abraham developed the humanistic theory which is based on the inner drive to excel. Maslow expressed this inner drive through his definition of Self-Actualization from his a hierarchy of needs theory. He wrote that human beings are motivated by unsatisfied needs and that certain lower needs must be satisfied before higher order needs can be approached for satisfaction. Rather than approaching motivation from a deficit model, such as Freud and Skinner did, Maslow believed that individuals should be studied from the vantage point of their more positive natures. He grouped needs into a hierarchical order of urgency and believed that the needs must be satisfied before an individual can look beyond himself/herself to the welfare of others. He believed that as long as individuals are motivated to satisfy their needs, they are moving toward growth and self-actualization. Attempting to block gratification stifles growth and can be detrimental to the health and well-being of the individual. The following includes a brief description for each of the levels of need in ascending order to self-actualization:

Physiological/biological needs are the most demanding. Only after hunger, thirst, and the need for shelter have been satisfied, do the needs at the next higher level emerge.
Safety needs include security, protection from physical and emotional harm, and the desire for good health.
Need for family and friends in the individual and the feeling of acceptance and friendship in relations with others.
Need for esteem follows and moves the individual to their first internal demand for self respect, autonomy, achievement along with status, recognition, and attention.
Self-actualization assumes that lower needs have been satisfied; personal motivation is re-directed towards developing one's potential, to "become" what you are capable of achieving in life.

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Onomatopoeia - the terms used to describe words whose pronunciations suggest their meaning (e.g., meow, buzz, zoom).

Operant Conditioning – coined by B.F. Skinner, is based upon the premise that learning is a function of change in overt behavior. The change in behavior is a result of the student’s response to events (stimuli) occurring in their environment. A response produces a consequence such as, learning to behave. When a particular Stimulus-Response (S-R) pattern is reinforced (rewarded), the individual is conditioned to respond.

Skinner examined how learning was affected by stimuli presented after an act was performed. He discovered that certain stimuli caused the organism to repeat an act more frequently. Today, classroom teachers are the recipients of this discovery; and use reinforcement as a means of controlling and motivating student behavior. Behavior modification" is a technique teachers’ use in improving the learning and classroom behavior of students via a system of rewards and punishments.

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Orthography - the study of the nature and use of symbols in a writing system; correct or standardized spelling according to established usage in a given language.

Parts of Speech Exercise:

Here's a little rhyme — by David B. Tower & Benjamin F. Tweed —that teachers used in days gone by to help students learn the parts of speech. (We include it here in response to popular demand. Why the song leaves out pronouns is a mystery. A writer from Richland, Washington, suggests "A PRONOUN replaces any noun: / he, she, it, and you are found). It has been set to music, but we'll leave that up to you to discover or create for yourself:

Three little words you often see
Are ARTICLES: a, an, and the.

A NOUN's the name of anything,
As: school or garden, toy, or swing.

ADJECTIVES tell the kind of noun,
As: great, small, pretty, white, or brown.

VERBS tell of something being done:
To read, write, count, sing, jump, or run.

How things are done the ADVERBS tell,
As: slowly, quickly, badly, well.

CONJUNCTIONS join the words together,
As: men and women, wind or weather.

The PREPOSITION stands before
A noun as: in or through a door.

The INTERJECTION shows surprise
As: Oh, how pretty! Ah! how wise!

The whole are called the PARTS of SPEECH,
Which reading, writing, speaking teach.

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Pavlov, Ivan P. (1849-1936) discovered "conditioning" and initially believed that all behavior was reflexive. Pavlov thought that all learning, whether the elicited responses in animals, or of highly conceptual behaviors in humans was due to the mechanisms of classical conditioning. We now believe theory to be wrong. Classic Conditioning implies that there are stimulus --> response relationships that occur in nature. Pavlov called these naturally occurring events unconditioned stimuli (UCS) and unconditioned responses (UCR).

When neutral stimuli and unconditioned stimuli are exposed frequently, they become associated; thus, causing the neutral stimulus to signal or clue that the unconditioned stimulus is coming next. After several pairings, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) that elicits a behavior called the conditioned response (CR).

Pavlov gained world-wide acclaim for his research with dogs when he discovered that when hungry dogs saw food they tended to salivate. He indicated that this behavior is an unconscious, uncontrolled, and unlearned response. Thus, food is now an unconditioned stimulus and salivation is an unconditioned response. Therefore, both food and salivation are naturally connected. In addition, this behavior did not have to be learned because it was already present. In short, this is referred to as learning by association or contiguity.

Pavlov took the experiment further when he began ringing a bell as food was given to the dog. Over time, the dog associated the sound of the bell with food. Therefore, the bell developed the capacity to elicit the same salivation response as the food did initially. This is known as Classic Conditioning. Pavlov began his investigation with two variables that were already connected (food and salivation). When he added a third component (bell), the bell became so strongly associated with food that it was able to produce the same behavior in the dog (salivation).

Food = Unconditioned Stimulus

Salivation = Unconditioned Response - (Natural and not learned)

Bell = Conditioned Stimulus

Salivation = Conditioned Response (Bell)

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Phoneme - A minimal sound unit of speech that, when contrasted with another phoneme, affects the naming of words in a language, such as /b/ in book contrasts with /r/ in rook, /l/ in look. Phonemes are the smallest units of sound that change the meanings of spoken words. For example, if you change the first phoneme in cat from /c/ to /f/, the word bat changes to fat. The English language has about 41-44 phonemes. A few words, such as a or oh, have only one phoneme. Most words have more than one phoneme. The word “if ” has two phonemes /i/ and /f/.

Phonics - teaching reading and spelling that stresses basic symbol-sound relationships and their application in decoding words in beginning instruction.

Phonological System is important in both oral and written language. There are 26 letters and 44 sounds and many ways to combine the letters - particularly the vowels–to spell many of the sounds. Sounds are called phonemes, and represented in print, and

Graphemes are letter combinations.

Phonogram - a succession of letters representing the same phonological unit in different words, such as ed in red, bed, fed. or, IGHT in FLIGHT, MIGHT and TIGHT.

Piaget, Jean (1896-1980) - a Swiss biologist and psychologist constructed a model of child development and learning based on the idea that the developing child builds cognitive structures or mental maps, “schemes,” or networked concepts for understanding and responding to physical experiences within their environment. The child's cognitive structure advances in sophistication with development and grows from a few innate reflexes such as crying to highly complex mental activities.

Jean Piaget discovered that children, unconsciously held thought processes that represent their own individual order with their personal special logic. He theorized that cognitive development is a continuous process that varies in rate based on individual differences in children and progressed through a similar orderly series (e.g., In order to build a block tower four blocks high, requires that the 4th block cannot be completed until the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd blocks are in place). Therefore, cognitive development is based on a sequential ordering process. Piaget found that even children with disabilities and developmental delays learned via sequential ordering. Important concepts include schemes, assimilation, accommodation and equilibration.

Schemes a group of acquired information which is manifested via the patterns of behavior or thinking that people use in dealing with objects in their environment
Assimilation implies that an object is incorporated into a new scheme,
Accommodation describes the situation when a schemata is changed to fit new circumstances, and
Equilibration occurs when a person focuses on an object causing disequilibrium in his or her world and either adapts new schemes or changes old ones in order to restore equilibrium.

Accommodation is the ability to deal with a new event by either modifying an existing scheme or forming a new one. A scheme is group of acquired information.

Assimilation the ability to deal with a new event in a way that is consistent with an existing scheme.

Disequilibrium implies the inability to explain new events by using existing schemes.

There are qualitative changes that mark the development of children’s cognitive abilities. Piaget described the principle of equilibrium as one of the mechanisms that facilitates change. With organization of and adaptation to new learning experiences, the child achieves stability, or equilibrium. Piaget believed that learning occurs through the process of disequilibrium. This occurs when there is a mismatch between what a child knows and what he/she perceives in the environment. For example, a child may have learned that something you can ride in that has 4 wheels and a motor is a car. When the parent points to such an object and labels it truck, the child is confused. The child’s present knowledge is that such a vehicle is a car. The child has not learned what a truck is; therefore, a state of confusion, or disequilibrium, exists. Piaget felt that this confusion was a point of learning for the child in that it takes this disequilibrium for new learning to be brought into the child’s knowledge base.

As children grow/develop, they add new experiences to their knowledge base. When this happens, children must modify what they already know by adding the new information they have just gained, thus increasing learning. Piaget labeled this process as schemata.

In interacting with the environment, Piaget described two processes – assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation occurs when the child interprets new experiences only in terms of schemata already known. For instance, a child may know that things that fly are called birds. Thus, when the child sees a plane, he/she will think bird in the present state of stored knowledge. Schemata – symbolizes a data structure for representing the generic concepts stored in memory. There are three types of schemata’s: content, language, and textual. (1) Content Schemata - includes systems of factual knowledge, values, and cultural conventions; (2) Language Schemata - includes sentence structure, grammatical inflections, spelling, punctuation, vocabulary, and cohesive structures, and (3) Textual Schemata - includes the rhetorical structure of different modes of text, (e.g., recipes, fairy tales, research papers, and science textbooks).

Accommodation occurs when the child’s schemata are modified from believing that everything that flies is a bird to adding information so that they are now aware that many things that fly are called planes. Accommodation is the addition of knowledge to the present store of knowledge. When the child interacts with the environment, it is common for both assimilation and accommodation occur. First, the child will try to change the environment by fitting the new occurrence into her/his store of knowledge. Then with disequilibrium and new perceptions, the child develops a new understanding and conforms to reality.

Piaget experiments with his own children, Lucienne, Laurent, and Jacqueline led to the development of his "Stages of Cognitive Development." The stages of intellectual growth include, (1) sensori-motor stage from birth to age two, (2) preoperational period from ages two to seven, (3) concrete operational stage, ages 7 to 11, and (4) formaloperationalstage, ages 11 to adulthood.

During the sensori-motor stage of development (birth to age two), infants reacts to each object within their environment solely on the basis of its physical characteristics, and not its symbolic meaning. Initially during this period, the infant relies on reflexes which gradually move to the use and mastery of body movements and voice (crying) to communicate and obtain what they need. Eventually, the conception of "self" is developed as the child learn that they are a complete entity existing solely detached from objects within their environment. According to Cooley (1902), this is realized when the child associate the pronouns of the first person singular, "I," "Me," "mine," and Myself," to themselves. Until they begin using first person in reference to themselves, they have not yet established self awareness.

By now, the child can imagine that they are playing with a toy and now they are able to carry out this act by actually playing with the toy via manipulation. They now discover that when objects are not in view that the objects have not simply vanished. This period culminates with the acquisition of language and using simple sentences to communicate, rather than the primitive means of communicating through reflex body movement and crying.

The preoperational period (age’s two to seven) is manifested by rapid growth and development. The child's growth is accelerated through their ability to use their language mastery to communicate, experiment, and learn. However, the preoperational child is limited in his ability to think and to conceptualize because of his lack of exposure and maturity. Here, children's perceptions and confusion are based solely on their exposure to their immediate environment consisting of what they tend to observe and what they hear. Children are unable to explain why or how things which are the same in volume appear to change through manipulation or rearrangement. The placing of five block in a straight row with the blocks touching each other is different to the child when confronted with another five blocks in a straight row with spaces in between the blocks because, "they are different because this row is longer."

This is also the egocentric language stage where they say things without taking into account how much the listener knows or not about a subject. This stage is also characterized by the child's inability to engage in multiple-categorizations. During this period, children are not yet mature enough to conceptualize more than one property at a time (e.g., size, color, shape, etc.). Objects are either, big and little or, short and tall. A grape is tiny, purple, and sweet but not necessarily little, green, and sour. Therefore, the child is able to deal with objects on an individual basis, but unable to group objects. When asked the question, "Grapes are considered fruit, if we eat up all the grapes in the world, will there be any fruit left in the world?” The preoperational child will answer no! Although the child will develop much better reasoning and conceptualization skills, they non-the-less are still functioning in the here and now perspective.

The concrete operational period (age’s seven to 11) is characterized by children who are growing from an egocentric perspective to a social being. They are now becoming more intellectual as they are able to master problems relative to reversibility, ordering objects by groups, size, number, and even classification. Here, the child is able to think about other perspectives simultaneously and solve problems in their minds. In addition, concrete operational children have the ability to relate to both time and space. If asked a question, "Look at this box of blue pencils, are there more blue pencils or wooden pencils?" The preoperational child is likely to answer, blue ones! In contrast, children at the concrete operational stage will answer the question correctly. Another example is, "If all the birds in the sky die, will there be any turkeys left?" The Preoperational child will answer, “No!”

The formal operational (ages 11 and on) stage marks the culmination of Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development. This period is represented by the child's ability to engage in hypothetical reasoning which includes both abstract and logical thinking and problem solving abilities. During this period, the child thinks about the ideal, as opposed to what is real and concrete. The child is also capable of identifying reasoning, explaining, and defending his position. The child is now thinking about his future in terms of what it would be like to be a surgeon, teacher, artist, etc.

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Portfolio Assessment - provides a body of the student’s work--essentially, a portfolio--that can be used to evaluate student performance over a period of time.

Pre-writing - the initial creative stage of writing, prior to drafting, in which the writer formulates ideas, gathers information, organizes or plans.

Reading Workshops are designed to encourage students to read self-selected books independently or in small groups. Afterwards, students are expected to respond to the books by writing in their reading logs and discussing the book in small groups to other students who are also reading the same book. This approach helps students to become fluent readers and to deepen their appreciation of books and reading.

Reflective Teaching involves the ability to: research & explore, question & analyze, and make changes to both lessons and curriculum based on learning results experienced in the classroom.

Rime - the part of a syllable (not a word) consisting of its vowel and any consonant sounds that come after it, the first vowel in a word along with all of the sounds that follow, for example, /-utterfly/ in “butterfly.”

Rogers, Carl – founded the non-directive, (e.g., client-centered, person-centered), approach to psychotherapy, which emphasizes a person-to-person relationship between the therapist and the client. The therapist must provide a non-threatening environment, with attention directed toward the counseling sessions and the duration of treatment. The non-directive approach or person-centered psychotherapy, an approach to the treatment of mental disorders that aims primarily toward fostering personality growth by helping individuals gain insight into and acceptance of their feelings, values, and behavior regardless of the severity. The role of the therapist is to extend consistent, warm and total unconditional positive regard and support toward clients (e.g., patients, students, etc.). The therapist must avoid using negative connotations and remain non-judgmental toward clients during therapy sessions.

In addition to his influence on counseling, Rogers made significant contribution to the field of education. Here, Rogers distinguished two types of learning: (1) cognitive (academic knowledge such as psychology or multiplication tables) and (2) experiential (applied knowledge such as learning about engines in order to repair a car). His best selling book, Freedom to Learn (1969) pointed out that experiential learning addresses the needs and wants of the learner and is equivalent to personal change and growth.

Rogers believed that all human beings have a natural propensity to learn; the role of the teacher is to facilitate such learning which includes:

Setting a positive climate for learning
Clarifying the purposes of the learner(s)
Organizing and making available learning resources
Balancing intellectual and emotional components of learning, and
Sharing feelings and thoughts with learners but not dominating.

If the aforementioned pointed are effectively implemented, learning is facilitated when:

1. The student participates completely in the learning process and has control over its nature and direction

2. It is primarily based upon direct confrontation with practical, social, personal or research problems

3. Self-evaluation is the principal method of assessing progress or success.

Rogers also emphasizes the importance of learning to learn and an openness to change.
Roger's theory of learning originates from his views about psychotherapy and humanistic approach to psychology. It applies primarily to adult learners and has influenced other theories of adult learning.

Significant learning takes place when the subject matter is relevant to the personal interests of the student
Learning which is threatening to the self (e.g., new attitudes or perspectives) are more easily assimilated when external threats are at a minimum
Learning proceeds faster when the threat to the self is low

Self-initiated learning is the most lasting and pervasive www.onepine.info/proger.htm

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Round-robin Reading - an outdated reading strategy that attempts to teach students to read by having them follow other students in reading specific passages of text identified by the teacher. This technique is not recommended because it hampers reading fluency, its boring, and it causes students to lose interest in the story.

Rubric - a set of scoring guidelines for assessing student work including a summary listing of the criteria that distinguish high quality work from low quality assignments.

Scaffolding - is a metaphoric term used by Vygotsky to show how parents and teachers provide temporary assistance to children/students by modeling appropriate behavior or skills. In the classroom, teachers model or demonstrate specific strategies and gradually shift the responsibility to the student to demonstrate.

Schemata - a data structure for representing the generic concepts stored in memory. There are three types of schemata’s, content, language, and textual: (1) Content Schemata - includes systems of factual knowledge, values, and cultural conventions; (2) Language Schemata - includes sentence structure, grammatical inflections, spelling, punctuation, vocabulary, and cohesive structures, and (3) Textual Schemata - includes the rhetorical structure of different modes of text, (e.g., recipes, fairy tales, research papers, and science textbooks).

Semantics - the study of the meaning in language and the analysis of the meanings of words, phrases, sentences.

Shared Reading is an activity in where the teacher and students sit together around a Big Book so that all can see the print and pictures. Individual students are selected to point to print and the other students join in and reading at their own level of expertise. Sometimes, the teacher reads a passage while pointing to the words to help young readers learn to read.

Sight Word - easily recognized words that requires no word analysis for identification or pronunciation. The Dolch Basic Sight Vocabulary List contains 220 such words (e.g., it, is, do, go, an, all, in, me, my, on, do, be, any, eat, get, new, about, etc.)

Situated Learning was coined by Lave. Basically, situated learning is a general theory of knowledge acquisition that is manifested as a function of the specific activity, context or culture in which it occurs. This contrasts with most classroom learning activities which involve knowledge that's usually abstract and out of context. Learning requires social interaction and collaboration within an authentic context, i.e., settings and applications that would normally involve that knowledge.

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Skinner, Burrhus Frederic (B.F.) (1904-1990) is hailed as the greatest behavioral psychologist and the father of operant conditioning. Skinner was strongly influenced by the work of John B. Watson and believed that psychologists should study both predicting and controlling behavior. Skinner investigated the stimuli that control behavior. Afterwards, he became impressed with reinforcements and its effects of behavior. Skinner theorized that learning was a function of change in overt behavior; and changes in behavior are the result of the individual's response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment. A given response tended to produce a consequence such as “describing an event,” “doing physical exercise,” or “solving a problem on an exam.” When a particular Stimulus-Response (S-R) pattern is reinforced (rewarded), the individual is conditioned to respond.

Skinner developed a box to study how animals (rats and pigeons) learned. The Skinner Box was designed with two levers to trigger different kinds of stimuli - lights, or electric shocks - or food, or water. Since Skinner was a strict behaviorist and believed that all behaviors were based on the result of conditioning from either rewards or punishment. He is responsible for making the distinction between classical (Pavlovian) conditioning and operant conditioning.

Classical conditioning is called type s (stimulus) and operant conditioning is called type r (response); and reinforcers served to shape the response characteristics. He concluded that behavior is shaped by complex patterns of reinforcement in a person’s environment, a process that he called operant conditioning. Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner's S-R theory. A reinforcer is anything that strengthens the desired response, including food or privileges. In contrast, negative reinforces include any stimulus that results in the increased frequency of a response when it is withdrawn which is different from aversive stimuli punishment.

Skinner modified Thorndike’s theory and made some important changes:

1. He changed the learning environment. In Thorndike’s box, the cat only had an opportunity to learn when the experimenter put it in the learning environment. In other words, the experimenter controlled the cat's opportunities for learning. Skinner created an operant conditioning chamber (other researchers called this apparatus a Skinner Box). The animal could remain in the chamber and have unlimited opportunities to learn. An example was a rat cage with food, water, an exercise wheel, etc., but it also contained a lever that the rat could press repeatedly to get more food.

2. Skinner boxes (operant conditioning apparatuses) helped him discover a term he called, shaping. Obviously, the rat doesn’t know that pressing the lever will get more food – so it has to be rewarded for successively closer approximations of the desired response. In other words, the experimenter gives a food pellet to the rat only if it is close to the lever, then only if it stands on its’ hind legs next to the lever, then only if it touches the lever......until the rat presses the lever by itself. This process suggests learning.

3. Skinner also used schedules of reinforcement, where rather than giving a reinforcement (e.g., a food pellet) after every response (e.g., a lever press), Skinner fixed the operant conditioning chamber to give a reinforcement only after 2 or 3 responses. This is a partial reinforcement schedule. Learning with a partial reinforcement schedule is more resistant to extinction, implying that learning is retained longer.

4. Ratio & Interval reinforcement schedules. Ratio schedules give reinforcement after x number of responses. The ratio of responses to reinforcement can be either fixed or variable. A fixed ratio schedule gives reinforcement after every (5) responses, for example: a variable ratio schedule gives reinforcement ‘on the average’ every (5) trials – sometimes the reinforcement comes after 2 responses, then after 7 responses, then 6 responses, etc. , so that reinforcement occurs on the average after every 5 responses.
Interval schedules give reinforcement after a time interval. A fixed interval schedule gives reinforcement every (5) minutes. A variable interval schedule gives reinforcement ‘on the average’ every five minutes - sometimes the reinforcement comes after 2 minutes, then after 7 minutes, then 6 minutes, etc.

5. Types of reinforcement are positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and punishment.

Positive reinforcement - the rat performs the desired behavior and gets a desirable reward. For example, it presses a lever and is rewarded with a food pellet.
Negative reinforcement - an undesirable event occurs until the organism performs the desired behavior. For example, the floor of the rat cage is electrified until the rat presses a lever to turn off the electricity. Positive and negative reinforcement both increase the frequency of behavior.
Punishment - is the opposite of reinforcement. It decreases the frequency of the behavior. The organism performs an undesirable behavior and an aversive or negative consequence is administered.

6. Secondary reinforcement – suggest that some reinforcers are only signals that a positive reinforcement is on the way. For example, Skinner fixed an operant conditioning chamber to give food pellets when the rat pressed a lever but only if a signal light was on. When the light was off, the rat could not get food by pressing the lever. Next, Skinner trained the rat to do something else to turn on the light. For example, running in the exercise wheel will turn on the light.....so the rat learned to run in the wheel, and then press the lever whenever it wanted to eat.

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Assessing and Evaluating Student Performance:

Achievement Tests used to measure what the student retained in the curriculum. To obtain an estimate of current academic levels in specific academic areas. They are also used to compare an individual student’s academic achievement level with the national norm or expectation of average performance. Individual academic achievement tests usually include a variety of basic academic skill areas such as:

• Reading decoding
• Reading comprehension
• Math calculation
• Math reasoning
• Spelling
• Written language

Commonly Used Achievement Tests
• Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement-III
• Peabody Individual Achievement Test-R
• Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement -II
• Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-II
• Wide Range Achievement Test-R

Adaptive Behavior Tests
Instruments that assess a student’s ability to adapt to the world in different situations.

Aptitude Tests
Tests designed to measure strength, talent, or ability in a particular area or domain.

Classroom Behavior Checklist
Various scales, checklists, and inventories are used to observe and evaluate classroom behavioral problems.

Commonly Used Behavior Scales and Checklists
• Camelot Behavioral Checklist

• Conner’s Rating Scales-Revised

• Interpersonal Behavior Survey

• Scales of Independent Behavior (SIB)

• Vanderbilt AD/HD Diagnostic Teacher Rating Scale

Curriculum-Based Assessment
To determine how student is performing using actual content of curriculum such as chapter tests or teacher made tests

Curriculum-Based Measurement
Specific techniques to measure progress of a specific skill against an aim line

Criterion-referenced Tests
To assess a student's progress in skill mastery against specific standards.

Criterion-related Tests
To assess student's progress on items that are similar to objectives or standards

Diagnostic Tests
Individually administered tests that determine specific academic problems.

Ecological Assessment
Evaluation of classroom variables to determine possible classroom environmental influences of learning or behavior

Norm-Referenced Tests

Norm-referenced tests are tests developed to establish the average or typical performance of students within specific age or grade groups. Norm-referenced tests are often administered when it is necessary to determine if the student’s ability or skill level is significantly above or below age or grade peers. For example, these tests are used to assess students who may be within the gifted range of intellectual ability or who may have significant cognitive challenges.

Portfolio Assessment

This is a procedure that involves using a variety of student products such as: written assignments, presentations, class reports, exams, practicum experiences, etc., to assess and evaluate progress made over a period of time.

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Praxis Test Taking Tips

Physiological Preparation:

· Do not eat a heavy meal before taking the Praxis

· Do not smoke before taking the Praxis

· Do not drink alcohol before taking the Praxis

· Exercise regularly during the week you plan to take the Praxis

· Eat natural carbohydrates before taking the Praxis

· Get at least 8 hours of sleep nightly

· Try to wake up at least 2 hours before the exam

· Sit up straight and do not "hunch" or “slouch” while taking the Exam

· Study daily and be prepared for the exam

· Be Relaxed and do not panic

Taking the Praxis:

· Read all questions very carefully

· Have a positive outlook

· Do not change your first response, unless you know for sure you are correct

· Understand the type of test you are taking

· Start with the section that you know the best

· On an essay test write outlines

· Write in simple sentences on an essay test

Study Preparation:

· Attend all Praxis Workshops offered by the Testing Center – CPCP

· Visit the KSU Praxis Preparation Review Site

· Review the 100 + Praxis Terms, Concepts, and Theories

· Review the Praxis Notes located on the Review Website

· Study the test by sections

· Do not study or worry about minuscule details

· Look at information as a body of knowledge

· Do not study chronological order

· Review the test content categories

· Join a study group and practice with peers

· Avoid cramming for the exam

· Review the Test at a Glance (TAG) Booklets offered by ETS

Multiple Choice Test Tips:

· Follow the directions carefully

· Pace your work but work at a moderate speed

· Read every item carefully

· Determine the "best" answer and select an answer for every question

· Guess wisely and do not leave any question “blank”

· Mark your answers carefully and check the accuracy of your work

· Have a strategy for handling the reading passages

· Know how to make abstract situations concrete

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Screening Tests

Brief tests and instruments that sample a few items across various skills or domains.

Self-Perception Scales

Instruments to assess students self-concept or self-esteem.

Commonly Used Self-Perception Scales

· Coopersmith Self-Concept Test

· Piers-Harris Children’s Self-Concept Scale

· The Tennessee Self Concept Scale (TSCS)

Special Education:

· Adaptive skills - Skills needed to adapt to one's living environment (communication, self-care, home living, social skills, community use, self-direction, health and safety, functional academics, leisure, and work.) and is usually estimated by an adaptive behavior survey.

· Continuum of alternative placements - The full range of alternative placements, from those assumed to be least restrictive to those considered most restrictive. It ranges from regular classrooms in neighborhood schools to resource rooms, self-contained classes. special day schools, residential schools, hospital schools, and home instruction.

· Full Inclusion – Special class placement in a regular classroom for most or all of the school day

· Mainstreaming - The placement of students with disabilities in general education classes for all or part of the day and for all or only a few classes.

· Least Restrictive Environment (LEA) - Students with disabilities must be educated in as normal an environment as possible.

· Research Design - Scientific Method - 1. Define the problem; 2. Find out what is already known about the problem; 3. Form an hypothesis 4. Conduct an experiment to test the hypotheses; and 5. Use the results to reach a conclusion.

Special Education Laws (Legislation) IDEA Milestones: 1975-2005

Legislation	Law/Act	Passed/Changed Date
Education of All Handicapped Children	P.L. 94-142	Nov. 29, 1975
Attorney fee provisions put in law the	P.L. 99-372	Aug. 1986
Part H (now Part C) established	P.L. 99-457	Oct. 8, 1990
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)	P.L. 101-476	Oct. 30, 1990
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA '97)	P.L. 105-17	June, 1997
IDEA Improvement Act of 2004, amended IDEA	P.L.108-446	Dec. 3, 2004

Comparison of IDEA, Section 504 and the ADA

http://www.sunyacc.edu/page4959

	IDEA	Section 504	ADA
Mission	To provide a free, appropriate, public education (FAPE) in the least restrictive environment	To provide people with disabilities, to the maximum extent possible, the opportunity to be fully integrated into mainstream American life.	To provide all people with disabilities broader coverage than Section 504 in all aspects of discrimination law
Scope	Applies to public schools	Applies to any program or activity that receives federal financial assistance.	Applies to public or private employment, transportation, accommodations, and telecommunications regardless of whether federal funding is received.
Coverage	Only those students age 3-21 who need special education and related services because of their disability.	All qualified people with disabilities regardless of whether special education services are required in public elementary, second-dary or postsecondary settings.	All qualified people with disabilities, and qualified non-disabled related to or associated with a person with a disability.
Disability Defined	A listing of disabilities is provided in the act, including specific learning disabilities.	No listing of disabilities is provided, but criteria including having any physical or mental impair-ment that substantially limits one or more major life activities, having a record of such impairment, or being regarded as having such an impairment.	No listing of disabilities provided. Same criteria as Section 504.
Identification Process	Responsibility of school District to identify through "Child Find" and evaluate at no expense to parent or individual.	Responsibility of individual with disability to self-iden-tify and provide documentation. Cost of evaluation must be assumed by the individual, not the institution.	Same as Section 504
Service Delivery	Special education services and auxiliary aids must be stipulated in the Individual Education Plan.	Services, auxiliary aids, and academic adjustments may be provided in the regular education setting, arranged for by special education coordinator or disabled student services provider.	Services, auxiliary aids, and accommodations arranged for by the designated ADA coordinator; accommo-dations must not pose an undue hardship to employers.
Funding	Federal funds are conditional on compliance with IDEA regulations.	No authorization for funding is attached to this civil rights statute.	Same as Section 504.
Enforcement Agency	Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services in the U.S. Department of Education.	Office of Civil Rights in the U.S. Department of Education.	With the U.S. Department of Justice, in conjunction with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission and Federal Communications Commission. May overlap with OCR.
Remedies	Reimbursement by district of school related expenses is available to parents of children with disabilities to ensure FAPE.	A private individual can sue a recipient of federal financial assistance to ensure compliance with Section 504. Attorney fees and costs may be ordered.	Same as Section 504 with monetary damages for some violations. Attorney fees and litigation expenses are also recoverable.

Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA), the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), and Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 represent three attempts to improve the living conditions of those with disabilities.

Laws and purpose

ADA

IDEA

504

A civil rights law to prohibit discrimination solely on the basis of disability in employ-ment, public services, and accommodations.

An education act to provide federal financial assistance to State and local education agencies to guarantee special education and related services to eligible children with disabilities.

A civil rights law to prohibit discrimination on the basis of disability in programs and activities, public and private, that receive federal financial assistance.

Who is protected?

ADA

IDEA

504

Any individual with a disability who: (1) has a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more life activities; or (2) has a record of such impairment; or (3) is regarded as having such an impairment. Further, the person must be qualified for the program, service, or job.

Children ages 3-21 who are determined by a multidisci-plinary team to be eligible within one or more of 13 specific disability categories and who need special education and related services. Categories include autism, deafness, deaf-blindness, hearing impairments, mental retardation, multiple dis-abilities, orthopedic impair-ments, other health impair-ments, serious emotional disturbance, specific learning disabilities, speech or language impairments, traumatic brain injury, and visual impairments

Any person who (1) has a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities, (2) has a record of such an impairment or (3) is regarded as having such an impairment. Major life activities include walking, seeing, hearing, speaking, breathing, learning, working, caring for oneself, and performing manual tasks.

Provides for a free, appropriate public education (FAPE)

ADA

IDEA

504

Not directly. However, (1) ADA protections apply to nonsectarian private schools, but not to organization or private schools, or entities controlled by religious organization; (2) ADA provided additional protection in combination with actions brought under Section 504. Reasonable accommodations are required for eligible students with a disability to perform essential functions of the job. This applies to any part of the special education program that may be community-based and involve job training/placement.

Yes. A FAPE is defined to mean special education and related services. Special education means "specially designed instruction at no cost to the parents, to meet the unique needs of the child with a disability..." Related services are provided if students, require them in order to benefit from specially designed instruction. States are required to ensure the provision of "full educational opportunity" to all children with disabilities. IDEA requires the development of an Individualized Education Program (IEP) document with specific content and a required number of participants at an IEP meeting.

Yes. An "appropriate" education means an education comparable to that provided to students without disabilities. This may be defined as regular or special education services. Students can receive related services under Section 504 even if they are not provided any special education. Section 504 does require development of a plan, although this written document is not mandated. The Individualized Education Program (IEP) of IDEA may be used for the Section 504 written plan. Many experts recommend that a group of persons knowledgeable about the students convene and specify the agreed-upon services.

Frequently Confused Words:

accept & except

advice & advise

affect & effect

all ready & already

buy & by

choose & chose

complement & compliment

emigrate & immigrate

it's & its

loose & lose

miner & minor

past & passed

principal & principle

Stationary & stationery

than & then

their & there & they're

threw & through

to & too & two

weather & whether

your & you're

Nov. 29, 1975

Aug. 1986

Laws and purpose

ADA

IDEA

504

Who is protected?

ADA

IDEA

504

Provides for a free, appropriate public education (FAPE)

ADA

IDEA

504

Funding to implement services

ADA

IDEA